Early Family Experiences, Drug Use, and Psychosocial Adjustment across the Life Span: Is Parental Strictness Always a Protective Factor?

Objective: This study analyzes whether parental strictness, which is shared by authoritative parenting (strictness and warmth) and authoritarian parenting (strictness without warmth) styles, always acts as a main protective factor against drug use and psychosocial maladjustment in children. This conclusion has already been stated in numerous classic studies, though emergent research suggests that there are benefits to parental warmth regardless of whether strictness is present or not. Method: Sample were 2,095 Spanish participants (1,227 females, 58.6%), 581 adolescent children (aged 12-18 years, 27.7%) and 1,514 adult children (72.3%). The measures were the main parenting style dimensions (warmth and strictness), drug use, and a set of indicators of psychosocial adjustment. A 4 × 2 × 4 MANOVA was applied for all outcomes with parenting style, sex, and age as independent variables. Results: Indulgent parenting (warmth without strictness) was related to less drug use than parenting without warmth (authoritarian and neglectful). Additionally, indulgent and authoritative parenting styles were related to better scores on psychosocial adjustment than authoritarian and neglectful styles, although the indulgent parenting was the only style related to the optimal scores being equal or even more effective than the authoritative style. Conclusion: Contrary to classical studies, present findings suggest that it is the parental warmth instead of the parental strictness that seems to be effective in protecting against drug use and psychosocial maladjustment.

Objetivo: En este estudio se analiza si, como asumen numerosos estudios clásicos, el componente de severidad que comparte el estilo parental autorizativo (severidad y afecto) con el estilo autoritario (severidad sin afecto) actúan siempre como el principal factor protector del consumo de drogas y el desajuste psicosocial de los hijos. Sin embargo, la investigación emergente sugiere los beneficios del afecto parental independientemente de la severidad. Método: Los participantes fueron 2,095 hijos españoles (1,227 mujeres, 58.6%), 581 adolescentes (de 12 a 18 años, 27.7%) y 1,514 adultos (72.3%). Las medidas fueron de las principales dimensiones del estilo parental (afecto y severidad), del consumo de drogas y un conjunto de indicadores del ajuste psicosocial. Se aplicó un MANOVA 4 × 2 × 4 con todos los criterios evaluados analizando el estilo parental, el sexo y la edad como variables independientes. Resultados: El estilo indulgente (afecto sin severidad) se relacionó con un menor consumo de drogas que los estilos sin afecto (autoritario y negligente). Además, los estilos indulgente y autorizativo se relacionaron con mejores puntuaciones en ajuste psicosocial, aunque el indulgente fue el único estilo relacionado con las puntuaciones óptimas siendo igual o incluso más eficaz que el estilo autorizativo. Conclusión: A diferencia de los estudios clásicos, los presentes resultados sugieren que el afecto parental, en vez de la severidad, parece ser eficaz como protección frente al consumo de drogas y el desajuste psicosocial.

Early Family Experiences, Drug Use, and Psychosocial Adjustment across the Life Span: Is Parental Strictness Always a Protective Factor? / [Las experiencias tempranas en la familia, el uso de drogas y el ajuste psicosocial: ¿es siempre la severidad parental un factor de protección?]

Objective: This study analyzes whether parental strictness, which is shared by authoritative parenting (strictness and warmth) and authoritarian parenting (strictness without warmth) styles, always acts as a main protective factor against drug use and psychosocial maladjustment in children. This conclusion has already been stated in numerous classic studies, though emergent research suggests that there are benefits to parental warmth regardless of whether strictness is present or not. Method: Sample were 2,095 Spanish participants (1,227 females, 58.6%), 581 adolescent children (aged 12-18 years, 27.7%) and 1,514 adult children (72.3%). The measures were the main parenting style dimensions (warmth and strictness), drug use, and a set of indicators of psychosocial adjustment. A 4 × 2 × 4 MANOVA was applied for all outcomes with parenting style, sex, and age as independent variables. Results: Indulgent parenting (warmth without strictness) was related to less drug use than parenting without warmth (authoritarian and neglectful). Additionally, indulgent and authoritative parenting styles were related to better scores on psychosocial adjustment than authoritarian and neglectful styles, although the indulgent parenting was the only style related to the optimal scores being equal or even more effective than the authoritative style. Conclusion: Contrary to classical studies, present findings suggest that it is the parental warmth instead of the parental strictness that seems to be effective in protecting against drug use and psychosocial maladjustment.(AU)

Objetivo: En este estudio se analiza si, como asumen numerosos estudios clásicos, el componente de severidad que comparte el estilo parental autorizativo (severidad y afecto) con el estilo autoritario (severidad sin afecto) actúan siempre como el principal factor protector del consumo de drogas y el desajuste psicosocial de los hijos. Sin embargo, la investigación emergente sugiere los beneficios del afecto parental independientemente de la severidad. Método: Los participantes fueron 2,095 hijos españoles (1,227 mujeres, 58.6%), 581 adolescentes (de 12 a 18 años, 27.7%) y 1,514 adultos (72.3%). Las medidas fueron de las principales dimensiones del estilo parental (afecto y severidad), del consumo de drogas y un conjunto de indicadores del ajuste psicosocial. Se aplicó un MANOVA 4 × 2 × 4 con todos los criterios evaluados analizando el estilo parental, el sexo y la edad como variables independientes. Resultados: El estilo indulgente (afecto sin severidad) se relacionó con un menor consumo de drogas que los estilos sin afecto (autoritario y negligente). Además, los estilos indulgente y autorizativo se relacionaron con mejores puntuaciones en ajuste psicosocial, aunque el indulgente fue el único estilo relacionado con las puntuaciones óptimas siendo igual o incluso más eficaz que el estilo autorizativo. Conclusión: A diferencia de los estudios clásicos, los presentes resultados sugieren que el afecto parental, en vez de la severidad, parece ser eficaz como protección frente al consumo de drogas y el desajuste psicosocial.(AU)

Do We Know Enough about Negative Parenting? Recent Evidence on Parenting Styles and Child Maladjustment / ¿Sabemos suficiente sobre el estilo parental negativo? Pruebas recientes sobre los estilos parentales y la inadaptación de los hijos

Background: There are serious doubts as to whether parental strictness, one of the two main dimensions of parental style, can be a negative or positive component of parenting in traditional societies. Method: Parenting style (authoritarian, authoritative, indulgent, and neglectful) was captured from strictness and warmth dimensions and child maladjustment was assessed with problems of self-esteem and self-concept (academic, social, emotional, family, and physical) studied worldwide. The sample was composed of 1,282 Chinese participants (676 females, 52.7%), 581 adolescent children (age ranging from 12-18 years, 45.3%), and 701 young adult children (age ranging from 19-31 years, 54.7%). A 4 × 2 × 2 factorial MANOVA was applied for all outcomes using parenting style, sex, and age as the independent variables. Results: The statistical analysis plainly indicated that authoritarian (strictness but not warmth) and neglectful (neither strictness nor warmth) parenting styles were associated with higher maladjustment in terms of lower self-esteem and self-concept scores. Indulgent (not strictness but warmth) and authoritative (strictness and warmth) parenting were positive parenting styles acting as protective factors against self-esteem and self-concept problems. The authoritative style (strictness and warmth), but not the authoritarian parenting style (strictness but not warmth), was the most positive parenting for academic self-concept, but only among adolescents. Conclusions: Interestingly, completely contrary to expectations that authoritarian parenting might be a positive parenting in traditional societies, present findings suggest that the authoritarian style might be a negative parenting related to child maladjustment. (AU)

Antecedentes: Existen serias dudas sobre si la severidad parental, una de las dos dimensiones principales del estilo parental, puede ser un componente negativo o positivo de la socialización en las sociedades tradicionales. Método: El estilo parental (autoritario, autorizativo, indulgente y negligente) se evaluó a partir de las dimensiones de severidad y afecto, y el desajuste de los hijos por medio de problemas de autoestima y autoconcepto (académicos, sociales, emocionales, familiares y físicos) estudiados en todo el mundo. La muestra estaba compuesta por 1,282 participantes chinos (676 mujeres, 52.7%), 581 hijos adolescentes (de 12 a 18 años, 45.3%) y 701 hijos adultos jóvenes (de 19 a 31 años, 54.7%). Se aplicó un MANOVA factorial 4 × 2 × 2 para todos los criterios utilizando el estilo parental, el sexo y la edad como variables independientes. Resultados: El análisis estadístico indicó claramente que el estilo parental autoritario (severidad sin afecto) y el negligente (ni severidad ni afecto) estaban relacionados con un mayor desajuste, como indican las menores puntuaciones de autoestima y autoconcepto. El estilo indulgente (afecto sin severidad) y el autorizativo (severidad y afecto) fueron estilos parentales positivos que actuaron como factores protectores contra los problemas de autoestima y autoconcepto. El estilo autorizativo (severidad y afecto), pero no el autoritario (severidad sin afecto), fue el más positivo para el autoconcepto académico, pero sólo en los adolescentes. Conclusiones: En contra de las expectativas de que el estilo parental autoritario podría ser positivo para la socialización en las sociedades tradicionales, los presentes resultados sugieren que la socialización autoritaria es un estilo parental negativo relacionado con problemas de desajuste de los hijos. (AU)

Which is the optimum parenting for adolescents with low vs. high self-efficacy? Self-concept, psychological maladjustmentand academic performance of adolescents in the Spanish context / ¿Cuál es el estilo parental óptimo para adolescentes con baja vs. alta autoeficacia? Autoconcepto, desajuste psicológico y rendimiento académico de los adolescentes en el contexto español

El objetivo de este estudio es identificar qué estilo parental se asocia con resultados óptimos entre los adolescentes de familias españolas considerando aquellos con baja vs. alta autoeficacia. Los participantes fueron 1029 adolescentes españoles, 453 varones (44%), de 12 a 17 años. Aunque los estudios clásicos identifican el estilo autorizativo (basado en el afecto y la severidad) como la mejor estrategia socializadora, las investigaciones emergentes cuestionan seriamente los beneficios de la severidad parental. Además, el impacto de la socialización parental en la competencia psicosocial del adolescente se ha estudiado durante años, pero se sabe menos sobre si podría variar en función de las características individuales del adolescente (e.g., la autoeficacia). Las familias fueron clasificadas por estilo parental (autorizativo, autoritario, indulgente o negligente), y los adolescentes por baja vs. alta autoeficacia. La competencia psicosocial se examinó a través del autoconcepto emocional y académico, el desajuste psicológico (hostilidad/agresión, autoestima negativa, irresponsividad emocional, inestabilidad emocional y visión negativa del mundo) y el rendimiento académico (nota media y número de cursos repetidos). Se comprobaron los efectos principales y de interacción de estilo parental y autoeficacia. Los resultados de los efectos principales indicaron que los adolescentes con baja autoeficacia presentaban siempre la peor competencia psicosocial. También que los adolescentes de familias indulgentes y autorizativas presentaron mejores resultados que los de familias negligentes y autoritarias. Sin embargo, el estilo parental indulgente se asoció a los mejores resultados. El impacto de la socialización parental podría no ser igual en todos los contextos culturales. Frente a los resultados de los estudios clásicos, la severidad parental parece ser innecesaria o incluso perjudicial para los adolescentes con baja y alta autoeficacia.(AU)

The aim of this paper is to establish which parenting style is as-sociated with optimum outcomes among adolescents of Spanish families considering adolescents with low vs. high self-efficacy. Although classical studies identify the authoritative parenting style (based on warmth and strictness) as the best parental strategy, emerging research seriously ques-tions the benefits of parental strictness. Additionally, the impact of parent-ing on the adolescent’s psychosocial competence has been studied for years, but less is known about whether it might vary depending on individ-ual characteristics of the adolescent (e.g., self-efficacy). Participants were 1029 Spanish adolescents, 453 males (44%), aged 12-17 years. Families were classified in one of the parenting styles groups (authoritative, authori-tarian, indulgent, or neglectful), and adolescents were grouped by low vs. high self-efficacy. Adolescent psychosocial competence was examined through emotional and academic self-concept, psychological maladjust-ment (hostility/aggression, negative self-esteem, emotional responsivity, instability, and negative view of the world), and academic performance (grade point average and number of failing grades). Main and interaction effects of parenting style and adolescent self-efficacy were tested. Main ef-fect results indicated that adolescents with low self-efficacy were always as-sociated with the worst psychosocial competence. Consistently, the main effect findings indicated that adolescents from indulgent and authoritative families were associated with better results than those from neglectful and authoritarian families. However, the indulgent parenting style yielded the best results. The impact of parenting might not be the same for adoles-cents in all cultural contexts. Contrary to findings from classical studies, parental strictness seems to be unnecessary or even detrimental for adoles-cents with low and high self-efficacy.(AU)

Parental Socialization and Adjustment Components in Adolescents and Middle-Aged Adults: How are They Related?

Purpose: Classic studies mainly of European-American families broadly identify the benefits of parental strictness combined with parental warmth. However, current research tends to identify parental warmth as positive for adjustment, even without parental strictness. In addition, less is known about the relationship between parenting and adjustment beyond adolescence. The present study examined warmth and strictness and its relationship with self, sexism, and stimulation values. Self-esteem, academic-professional self-concept, benevolent sexism, and stimulation values were used to capture adjustment. Patients and Methods: Participants (n = 1125) were adolescents and adult children of middle-age from Spain. The statistical analyses used were correlation analysis and multiple linear regression. Results: In general, the relationship between parenting and adjustment was found to have a similar pattern for adolescent and middle-aged adult children, although more marked in adolescents. Parental warmth and strictness were predictors of adjustment, but in a different direction. Specifically, parental warmth positively predicted academic-professional self-concept and self-esteem, whereas parental strictness was detrimental as a predictor of higher benevolent sexism. Conclusion: Overall, the present findings suggest that an effective socialization during the socialization years and even beyond can be positively predicted by parental warmth, whereas parental strictness might be unnecessary or even detrimental.

Adjustment and maladjustment to later life: Evidence about early experiences in the family.

Introduction: Previous parenting studies with European-American families have identified optimal parenting as being based on warmth combined with strictness (i.e., authoritative parenting). The present study analyzes, in adolescents and adults, their adjustment and maladjustment related to age and their early experiences in the family. Methods: The sample consisted of 2,158 Spanish people (58.29% women): 624 adolescents, 630 young adults, 504 middle-aged adults, and 400 older adults. The families were classified into one of the four parental typologies (authoritative, indulgent, authoritarian, and neglectful) based on their scores in the two main dimensions (warmth and strictness). Child functioning was measured as components of adjustment (self-esteem, emotional self-concept, and empathy) and maladjustment (aggression and hostile sexism). Results: Overall, only adolescents and adult children raised in indulgent families reported the highest self-esteem, emotional self-concept, and empathy, and the lowest aggression and hostile sexism. Authoritative parenting (warmth with strictness) was related to a lower emotional self-concept and greater aggression and hostile sexism than indulgent parenting (warmth without strictness). The worst scores corresponded to authoritarian and neglectful parenting. Discussion: The present findings provide new evidence about early experiences in the family, even after parental socialization has ended. Interestingly, contrary to the main findings from classic studies with European-American families, only high parental warmth combined with low parental strictness (i.e., indulgent parenting) is always positive for greater adjustment and less maladjustment in all age groups.

Analyzing when parental warmth but without parental strictness leads to more adolescent empathy and self-concept: Evidence from Spanish homes.

Introduction: Classical research mainly conducted with European-American families has identified the combination of warmth and strictness (authoritative style) as the parenting always associated with the highest scores on developmental outcomes. Additionally, despite the benefits of empathy for prosocial behaviors and protection against antisocial behaviors, most research has considered the contribution of specific practices (e.g., reasoning or power assertion), but not so much the parenting styles. Similarly, family studies tend to study the relationship between parenting and global self-perceptions (self-esteem), but not so much those of each dimension (self-concept). Methods: In the present study, 600 Spanish adolescents from 12 to 17 years old (M = 15.25, SD = 2.01) were classified within one of the four household typologies (i.e., authoritative, indulgent, authoritarian, or neglectful). Adolescent developmental outcomes were cognitive empathy (adopting perspectives and emotional understanding), emotional empathy (empathic stress and empathic happiness), and self-concept (academic, social, emotional, family and physical). Results: The results showed that the indulgent parenting (warmth but not strictness) was related to equal or even better empathy and self-concept than the authoritative style (warmth and strictness), whereas non-warm parenting (authoritarian and neglectful) was consistently associated with poor results. Discussion: Overall, the present findings seriously question that parental strictness combined with parental warmth (authoritative style) is always the parenting style related to the greatest outcomes. By contrast, it seems that reasoning, warmth and involvement, without strictness (indulgent parenting) help adolescents to achieve a good orientation toward others in terms of cognitive and affective empathy and a good self-evaluation in terms of self-concept.

Parental Socialization, Delinquency during Adolescence and Adjustment in Adolescents and Adult Children.

Although parental socialization has an influence on child development, current research is questioning which combination of parental strictness and warmth acts as protective or risk factors, especially during adolescence when the child is more vulnerable. The sample was 2125 participants, 58.7% female, divided into four age groups: adolescents (28.57%), young adults (28.38%), middle-aged adults (23.95%), and older adults (19.11%). The families were classified into four parenting styles: neglectful, indulgent, authoritative, and authoritarian according to their warmth and strictness scores. The psychosocial adjustment was measured by children's scores on academic/professional self-concept, self-esteem, delinquency during adolescence, and benevolence values. A MANOVA 4 × 2 × 4 was applied with parenting styles, sex, and age group as independent variables. The results showed that, for adolescents and adult children, only parenting styles characterized by warmth (i.e., indulgent, and authoritative) were found to factor against delinquency during adolescence and benefit greater academic/professional self-concept, self-esteem, and benevolence values, while parenting without warmth (i.e., authoritarian, and neglectful) were identified as risk factors. Contrary to classical research, the present findings seriously question the universal benefits of strict parenting as the only optimal strategy to protect not only against delinquency, but also to foster an adequate self and the internalization of social values.

Beyond Parenting Socialization Years: The Relationship between Parenting Dimensions and Grandparenting Functioning.

Parental socialization has been studied mainly when is in process, but less is known about its long-term impact on older adults, particularly on one of the most important developmental tasks in later life: being a grandparent. Participants were 313 Spanish grandparents. The present study examined the relationship between parenting and its impacts in the long term, when the child is a grandparent. The variables examined were parenting (parental warmth and parental strictness) and grandparenting functioning (satisfaction with life, meaning of life, parent-adult child relationship quality, emotional closeness with grandchildren, and role overload). The statistical analyses were a correlation analysis and multiple linear regression analyses. A constant pattern between parenting and grandparenting functioning has been found. Warmth was positively associated with grandparenting functioning, as opposed to strictness, which did not show benefits for grandparents and even showed a significant negative relationship with an indicator of grandparenting functioning. Present findings highlight that, during the socialization years, greater parental warmth but not parental strictness might be of benefit for children at the end of their life (i.e., when they are grandparents) but also for their descendants because they have a better relationship with the two following generations (i.e., adult children and grandchildren).

Positive parenting style and positive health beyond the authoritative: Self, universalism values, and protection against emotional vulnerability from Spanish adolescents and adult children.

Introduction: Recent research is fully questioning whether the combination of parenting warmth and strictness (the authoritative style) is always identified as positive parenting across the globe. This study analyzes parenting styles and the positive health of adolescents and adult children. Methods: The sample was 2,090 Spanish children (59.9% women), from four age groups: 600 adolescents, 591 young adults, 507 middle-aged adults, and 392 older adults. Parenting styles (indulgent, authoritative, authoritarian, and neglectful) were obtained by warmth and strictness measures. Children's positive health was measured by self (family self-concept, self-esteem, and negative self-efficacy), universalism values, and emotional vulnerability. Results: The main results showed that the indulgent parenting style was associated with equal and even better scores than the authoritative style, whereas the authoritarian and neglectful styles were consistently associated with low scores in positive health indicators for all age groups. However, two triple interactions of sex by age group by parenting style showed that women children from neglectful families reported the lowest family self-concept in old age and the highest emotional vulnerability in middle age. Discussion: The study findings question the universal benefits of the so-called positive parenting (the authoritative style) for positive health.

Raising Children in Risk Neighborhoods from Chile: Examining the Relationship between Parenting Stress and Parental Adjustment.

INTRODUCTION: Parenting stress and parental adjustment could implicate key differences in the relational dynamics that parents establish with their children, particularly when families come from vulnerable social contexts. METHOD: Participants were 142 fathers and mothers from a risk neighborhood of Chile. The variables examined were parenting stress (parental distress, parent-child dysfunctional interaction and difficult child) and parental adjustment (depression, anxiety, and stress). Parents also completed a sociodemographic characterization survey. The statistical analyses were a correlation analysis and multiple linear regression analyses. RESULTS: Overall, not all components of parenting stress were related to parental adjustment. Only parental distress was found as a significant predictor of poor parental adjustment (greater depression, anxiety, and stress), but not parent-child dysfunctional interaction and having a difficult child. CONCLUSIONS: The present study findings highlight the influence of stress on parenting as a relevant dimension of research for the improvement of the intervention deployed by the state regarding the protection of vulnerable Chilean children, providing multiple clinical and psychosocial applications for research and intervention purposes.